REVIEW PAPER
Overview of Indonesians sustainable nickel mining and processing
1
Department of International Business, Faculty of Economics, University of Gdansk
2
Department of Maritime Transport and Seaborne Trade, Faculty of Economics, University of Gdansk
These authors had equal contribution to this work
Submission date: 2025-10-13
Final revision date: 2026-04-07
Acceptance date: 2026-05-03
Publication date: 2026-06-22
Corresponding author
Gospodarka Surowcami Mineralnymi – Mineral Resources Management 2026;42(2):135-157
KEYWORDS
TOPICS
ABSTRACT
The green transition will require a substantial supply of energy-critical materials, including nickel, which is emerging as a critical material for that. A part of the transition is the electrification of the vehicle industry. The electric vehicle (EV) has been significantly rising in major markets worldwide. In 2023, 14.2 million electric vehicles were sold, which was 35 percent over the previous year (EV-Volumes 2023). Increasing EV sales are driving up global battery demand. The battery capacity reached 750 GWh in 2023, a 40 percent increase compared to the previous year. (International Energy Agency 2024). To keep up with rising demand, nickel is a critical material, and its production will need to expand. Indonesia is taking part in that growth, reaching around half of the global supply of nickel-containing chemistries by 2030 (Transport & Environment 2023). Since 2019, Indonesia has been accelerating its plans to position the country as a key player in the global EV value chain. Indonesia holds the world’s largest nickel reserves with an estimated 55 million tons (United Nations 2024). However, not all types of nickel can be used as a material for EV batteries. The way the nickel is mined from laterite ores leads to an increase in total costs for nickel production (Mudd 2010). Therefore, Indonesia should focus on including more advanced technologies in the mining process that can reduce the environmental impact. The increasing number of newly operating coal plants in Indonesia increased the emissions by 21 percent in 2022. In addition, they are off-grid coal plants that supply energy to the domestic metal industry and large infrastructure projects. The key purposes of this review paper are threefold: firstly, to investigate the increasing role of Indonesia in the global battery value chain; secondly, to identify the social and environmental concerns related to the adopted nickel mining technology, and thirdly, to identify the ways to make future Indonesian mining more sustainable.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
The Authors have no conflict of interest to declare.
METADATA IN OTHER LANGUAGES:
Polish
Przegląd zrównoważonego wydobycia i przetwarzania niklu w Indonezji
zrównoważone wydobycie i przetwarzanie niklu, HPAL, łańcuch wartości akumulatorów do pojazdów elektrycznych, Indonezja
Przejście na gospodarkę niskoemisyjną będzie wymagało znacznych dostaw surowców kluczowych dla energetyki, w tym niklu, który staje się w tym kontekście surowcem o kluczowym znaczeniu. Jednym z elementów tej transformacji jest elektryfikacja przemysłu motoryzacyjnego. Sprzedaż pojazdów elektrycznych (EV) znacznie wzrosła na głównych rynkach na całym świecie. W 2023 roku sprzedano 14,2 mln pojazdów elektrycznych, co stanowiło wzrost o 35% w porównaniu z rokiem poprzednim (EV-Volumes 2023). Rosnąca sprzedaż pojazdów elektrycznych napędza globalny popyt na akumulatory. Pojemność akumulatorów osiągnęła 750 GWh w 2023 r., co stanowi wzrost o 40% w porównaniu z rokiem poprzednim (Międzynarodowa Agencja Energetyczna 2024). Aby nadążyć za rosnącym popytem, nikiel jest materiałem o kluczowym znaczeniu, a jego produkcja będzie musiała wzrosnąć. Indonezja uczestniczy w tym wzroście, osiągając do 2030 r. około połowy światowej podaży związków chemicznych zawierających nikiel (Transport & Environment 2023). Od 2019 r. Indonezja przyspiesza realizację planów pozycjonowania kraju jako kluczowego gracza w globalnym łańcuchu wartości pojazdów elektrycznych. Indonezja posiada największe na świecie zasoby niklu, szacowane na 55 mln ton (United Nations 2024). Jednak nie wszystkie rodzaje niklu nadają się do wykorzystania jako surowiec do produkcji akumulatorów do pojazdów elektrycznych. Sposób wydobywania niklu z rud laterytowych powoduje wzrost całkowitych kosztów produkcji niklu (Mudd 2010). W związku z tym Indonezja powinna skupić się na wdrażaniu bardziej zaawansowanych technologii w procesie wydobywczym, które pozwolą ograniczyć wpływ na środowisko. Rosnąca liczba nowo uruchomionych elektrowni węglowych w Indonezji spowodowała wzrost emisji o 21 procent w 2022 roku. Ponadto są to elektrownie węglowe działające poza siecią, które dostarczają energię do krajowego przemysłu metalowego i dużych projektów infrastrukturalnych. Niniejszy artykuł przeglądowy ma trzy główne cele: po pierwsze, zbadanie rosnącej roli Indonezji w globalnym łańcuchu wartości akumulatorów; po drugie, zidentyfikowanie problemów społecznych i środowiskowych związanych z zastosowaną technologią wydobycia niklu; oraz po trzecie, wskazanie sposobów na zapewnienie większej zrównoważoności przyszłego wydobycia w Indonezji.
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| eISSN: | 2299-2324 |
| ISSN: | 0860-0953 |
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